analyzing-linux-persistence

Linux persistence mechanisms are spread across dozens of locations that no single tool checks comprehensively. The attacker needs only one you miss. The work is a systematic sweep of every initialization path the kernel and userspace honor, in a sequence that catches the common before the exotic.

When to Use

Investigating a compromised Linux host to find how the attacker kept access
Forensic analysis of a Linux disk image or live system
Looking for backdoors, unauthorized services, or rogue scheduled tasks
Determining the full scope of attacker modifications during IR
Validating that eradication removed every persistence mechanism

When NOT to Use

Running a full incident response -- use responding-to-incidents
Establishing persistence offensively -- use establishing-persistence
Actively escalating privileges -- use escalating-linux-privileges
The host is Windows -- use investigating-windows-endpoints
You have an acquired disk image, not a live host -- use analyzing-disk-images
Analyzing a recovered malware sample -- use analyzing-malware

Systemd Units

Systemd is the most common persistence vector on modern Linux. Check every search path, not just /etc/systemd/system.

Search paths (evaluated in priority order):

/etc/systemd/system/          # admin-installed, highest priority
/run/systemd/system/          # runtime units, survive until reboot
/usr/lib/systemd/system/      # package-installed defaults
/usr/local/lib/systemd/system/
~/.config/systemd/user/       # per-user units (no root needed)

Enumeration:

# All enabled units -- compare against a known-good baseline
systemctl list-unit-files --state=enabled --type=service
systemctl list-unit-files --state=enabled --type=timer

# Recently modified service files
find /etc/systemd /run/systemd /usr/lib/systemd ~/.config/systemd \
  -name '*.service' -o -name '*.timer' -o -name '*.socket' \
  2>/dev/null | xargs ls -lt | head -30

# Show the full contents of a suspect unit
systemctl cat suspicious.service

# Check for drop-in overrides that modify legitimate units
find /etc/systemd/system/*.d /run/systemd/system/*.d \
  -name '*.conf' 2>/dev/null

# Masked units -- attacker may mask a security service
systemctl list-unit-files --state=masked

# Systemd generators -- scripts that dynamically create units at boot.
# Four directories, in ascending precedence. Checking only the first two
# misses generators dropped in the others.
ls -la /etc/systemd/system-generators/
ls -la /run/systemd/system-generators/         # tmpfs: runtime-injected
ls -la /usr/local/lib/systemd/system-generators/
ls -la /usr/lib/systemd/system-generators/

A generator under /run does not survive reboot, so it is not persistence in the strict sense — but it is a live execution primitive, and its absence from a post-reboot image does not mean it was never there. Note it on a running host before you collect.

What to look for: ExecStart pointing to /tmp, /dev/shm, or writable paths. Restart=always units. Timers with unusual schedules. Drop-ins that change ExecStart on legitimate services. Generators not from any package.

Cron and At Jobs

# System crontab
cat /etc/crontab

# System cron directories
ls -la /etc/cron.d/
ls -la /etc/cron.daily/ /etc/cron.hourly/ /etc/cron.weekly/ /etc/cron.monthly/

# Per-user crontabs -- enumerate every user
for user in $(cut -d: -f1 /etc/passwd); do
  echo "=== $user ==="; crontab -l -u "$user" 2>/dev/null
done

# Anacron
cat /etc/anacrontab

# At queue -- one-shot scheduled commands
atq
for job in $(atq | awk '{print $1}'); do at -c "$job"; done

# Systemd timers (modern cron replacement)
systemctl list-timers --all

# Recently modified cron files
find /etc/cron* /var/spool/cron -type f -newer /etc/hostname 2>/dev/null

What to look for: Entries appended to existing files. Jobs running as root from unusual paths. Cron scripts with modification times not matching package install dates. One-shot at jobs that download and execute.

Shell Initialization Files

# System-wide
cat /etc/profile
ls -la /etc/profile.d/
cat /etc/bash.bashrc          # Debian/Ubuntu
cat /etc/bashrc               # RHEL/CentOS
cat /etc/environment
ls -la /etc/environment.d/

# Per-user -- check every user with a login shell
for home in $(awk -F: '$7 !~ /(nologin|false)/ {print $6}' /etc/passwd); do
  echo "=== $home ==="
  for f in .bashrc .bash_profile .bash_login .profile .zshrc .zprofile \
           .zlogin .zshenv .config/fish/config.fish; do
    [ -f "$home/$f" ] && echo "--- $f ---" && tail -5 "$home/$f"
  done
done

# Check for sourced external files
grep -rn 'source \|^\. ' /etc/profile.d/ /root/.bashrc /root/.profile 2>/dev/null

What to look for: Lines appended to rc files that launch background processes or modify PATH. Sourced files in unusual locations. Environment variables setting LD_PRELOAD, LD_LIBRARY_PATH, or prepending attacker directories to PATH.

SSH Persistence

# Authorized keys -- check every user
find / -name authorized_keys -o -name authorized_keys2 2>/dev/null | \
  while read f; do echo "=== $f ==="; cat "$f"; done

# Look for command= and from= restrictions (or lack thereof)
grep -n 'command=\|from=\|environment=\|no-pty\|permitopen' \
  /root/.ssh/authorized_keys /home/*/.ssh/authorized_keys 2>/dev/null

# SSH daemon configuration
sshd -T 2>/dev/null | grep -iE 'permit|auth|allow|forcecommand|match'
diff /etc/ssh/sshd_config /etc/ssh/sshd_config.dpkg-dist 2>/dev/null

# Config drop-ins
ls -la /etc/ssh/sshd_config.d/ 2>/dev/null

# PAM configuration for SSH
cat /etc/pam.d/sshd
# Look for added auth sufficient lines or custom PAM modules
# PAM module locations are distro-specific. Debian/Ubuntu use a multiarch
# path, so the RHEL-style list alone returns nothing there -- and an empty
# result reads as "no rogue module" when you simply looked in the wrong place.
find /lib/security/ /lib64/security/ /usr/lib/security/ /usr/lib64/security/ \
     /lib/*-linux-gnu/security/ /usr/lib/*-linux-gnu/security/ \
  -name 'pam_*.so' 2>/dev/null | \
  xargs -I{} sh -c 'rpm -qf {} 2>/dev/null || dpkg -S {} 2>/dev/null || echo "UNOWNED: {}"'

# SSH agent hijacking -- check for forwarded agent sockets
find /tmp -name 'agent.*' -type s 2>/dev/null
grep -r SSH_AUTH_SOCK /proc/*/environ 2>/dev/null | tr '\0' '\n'

# SSH certificates
ls -la /etc/ssh/ssh_host_*cert* 2>/dev/null
cat /etc/ssh/sshd_config | grep -i trustedusercakeys

What to look for: Keys added to root or service accounts. command= entries executing reverse shells or tunnels. PermitRootLogin yes or PasswordAuthentication yes against policy. Custom PAM modules not from any package. ForceCommand or Match blocks proxying access.

Kernel-Level Persistence

# Loaded kernel modules
lsmod
# Details on each module -- look for unsigned or out-of-tree modules
for mod in $(lsmod | awk 'NR>1{print $1}'); do
  modinfo "$mod" 2>/dev/null | grep -E 'filename|description|author|sig'
done

# Modules configured to load at boot
cat /etc/modules
ls -la /etc/modules-load.d/
cat /etc/modprobe.d/*

# DKMS-built modules (may rebuild on kernel update)
dkms status 2>/dev/null

# eBPF programs -- increasingly used for rootkits
bpftool prog list 2>/dev/null
bpftool map list 2>/dev/null

# Check for modifications to the kernel command line
cat /proc/cmdline

What to look for: Modules not from any installed package or loaded from writable directories. eBPF programs attached to kprobes or tracepoints. DKMS modules that survive kernel upgrades. init= in the kernel command line pointing to unexpected binaries.

Package Manager Hooks

# APT hooks (Debian/Ubuntu)
ls -la /etc/apt/apt.conf.d/
grep -r 'Pre-Invoke\|Post-Invoke\|DPkg::Pre-Install\|DPkg::Post-Install' \
  /etc/apt/apt.conf.d/ 2>/dev/null

# dpkg triggers and post-install scripts
ls -la /var/lib/dpkg/info/*.postinst
# Check recently modified postinst scripts
find /var/lib/dpkg/info/ -name '*.postinst' -newer /var/log/dpkg.log \
  2>/dev/null

# YUM/DNF plugins (RHEL/CentOS/Fedora)
ls -la /etc/yum/pluginconf.d/ /etc/dnf/plugins/ 2>/dev/null
ls -la /usr/lib/yum-plugins/ /usr/lib/python*/site-packages/dnf-plugins/ \
  2>/dev/null

# RPM scriptlets
rpm -qa --scripts 2>/dev/null | grep -B2 -A5 'postinstall\|preinstall'

# Pacman hooks (Arch)
ls -la /etc/pacman.d/hooks/ /usr/share/libalpm/hooks/ 2>/dev/null

What to look for: Hooks executing binaries outside the package manager's control. Post-install scripts modified after installation. Plugins not corresponding to any installed package.

LD_PRELOAD and Library Injection

cat /etc/ld.so.preload
grep -r LD_PRELOAD /etc/environment /etc/profile.d/ /etc/ld.so.conf.d/ \
  /etc/systemd/system/*.service 2>/dev/null

# Find libraries not owned by any package
ldconfig -p | awk '{print $NF}' | sort -u | \
  xargs -I{} sh -c 'dpkg -S "{}" 2>/dev/null || rpm -qf "{}" 2>/dev/null || echo "UNOWNED: {}"' | \
  grep UNOWNED

# Verify shared library integrity against package records
for lib in $(ldd /usr/sbin/sshd | awk '/=>/{print $3}'); do
  dpkg -V $(dpkg -S "$lib" 2>/dev/null | cut -d: -f1) 2>/dev/null || \
  rpm -V $(rpm -qf "$lib" 2>/dev/null) 2>/dev/null
done

What to look for: Any entry in /etc/ld.so.preload (almost never legitimate). LD_PRELOAD in environment files or systemd Environment= directives. Libraries not owned by any package or with checksums differing from package manager records.

Udev Rules and D-Bus Activation

# Udev rules -- trigger on hardware events
ls -la /etc/udev/rules.d/
ls -la /usr/lib/udev/rules.d/
grep -r 'RUN+=' /etc/udev/rules.d/ /run/udev/rules.d/ /usr/lib/udev/rules.d/ 2>/dev/null

# D-Bus system services
ls -la /etc/dbus-1/system.d/ /usr/share/dbus-1/system-services/ 2>/dev/null
# Look for services that auto-activate unexpected binaries
grep -r 'Exec=' /usr/share/dbus-1/system-services/ 2>/dev/null

What to look for: Udev rules with RUN+= that execute scripts on device events (USB insertion is a common trigger). D-Bus service files that activate binaries from unusual paths.

Container-Specific Persistence

# Docker -- compare entrypoints against original images
docker inspect --format='{{.Config.Entrypoint}} {{.Config.Cmd}}' \
  $(docker ps -aq) 2>/dev/null
docker diff $(docker ps -q) 2>/dev/null
docker images --digests 2>/dev/null
cat /etc/docker/daemon.json 2>/dev/null

# Kubernetes -- mutating webhooks and unexpected sidecars
kubectl get mutatingwebhookconfigurations -o yaml 2>/dev/null
kubectl get pods --all-namespaces -o jsonpath='{range .items[*]}{.metadata.namespace}/{.metadata.name}: {range .spec.containers[*]}{.name} {end}{"\n"}{end}' 2>/dev/null

What to look for: Containers whose entrypoint differs from the original image. docker diff showing added executables. Mutating webhooks injecting sidecars. Images with no registry digest (locally built or tampered).

XDG Autostart and Desktop Entries

# System-wide autostart
ls -la /etc/xdg/autostart/

# Per-user autostart
find /home/*/.config/autostart/ /root/.config/autostart/ \
  -name '*.desktop' 2>/dev/null

# Check Exec= lines in desktop files
grep -r 'Exec=' /etc/xdg/autostart/ /home/*/.config/autostart/ 2>/dev/null

What to look for: Desktop entries that execute scripts from writable locations. Autostart entries added for service accounts that should never have a desktop session.

Comprehensive Sweep and Forensic Artifacts

# Timestamp-sorted inventory across all persistence paths
{
  find /etc/systemd/system /run/systemd/system -type f 2>/dev/null
  find /etc/cron* /var/spool/cron -type f 2>/dev/null
  find /etc/profile.d/ -type f 2>/dev/null
  find / -name authorized_keys 2>/dev/null
  echo /etc/ld.so.preload
  find /etc/udev/rules.d/ /etc/xdg/autostart/ /etc/apt/apt.conf.d/ \
    -type f 2>/dev/null
} | xargs ls -lt --time-style=full-iso 2>/dev/null | head -60

# Files modified in the last 30 days across persistence paths
find /etc/systemd /etc/cron* /var/spool/cron /etc/profile.d \
  /etc/ssh /etc/pam.d /etc/modules-load.d /etc/udev/rules.d \
  /etc/xdg/autostart -type f -mtime -30 2>/dev/null | sort

# Files not owned by any package
# Debian/Ubuntu:
find /etc/systemd/system /etc/cron.d /etc/profile.d \
  -type f 2>/dev/null | xargs dpkg -S 2>&1 | grep 'not found'
# RHEL/CentOS:
find /etc/systemd/system /etc/cron.d /etc/profile.d \
  -type f 2>/dev/null | xargs rpm -qf 2>&1 | grep 'not owned'

# Process tree and network listeners
ps auxwwf
ss -tlnp

Collect these logs for timeline correlation: /var/log/auth.log (or /var/log/secure), /var/log/syslog (or journalctl export), /var/log/apt/history.log (or /var/log/yum.log), /var/log/cron, /etc/passwd, /etc/shadow, /etc/group. Build a filesystem timeline with fls or find -printf for MAC times.

Rationalizations to Reject

"We checked cron and systemd, that covers it." Those are two of more than

a dozen persistence paths. The sweep is not complete until every section above is checked.

"The file timestamps look old, so it is legitimate." Timestamps are

trivially modified with touch. Correlate with package manager records and log entries, not just mtime.

*"The attacker only had user-level access, so we only need to check

user-writable locations."* User-level persistence includes systemd user units, crontabs, rc files, authorized_keys, XDG autostart, and LD_PRELOAD via environment files.

"We ran an AV scan and it found nothing." AV detects known malware, not

persistence mechanisms that use legitimate system features. A cron job running curl | bash will not trigger a signature.

"The system was rebuilt, so persistence does not matter." Without knowing

how they persisted, you cannot confirm the rebuild closed the path.

"We only need to check the locations that our EDR monitors." EDR coverage

varies by product and configuration. The sweep is tool-independent.

References

responding-to-incidents -- broader IR methodology that this analysis feeds
establishing-persistence -- offensive perspective on the same mechanisms
escalating-linux-privileges -- privilege escalation vectors that often

pair with persistence

engineering-detections -- building detection rules for the mechanisms found
hunting-threats -- proactive searching for persistence across a fleet